UPSC IAS / IPS - MCQ Practice Questions
Practice <strong>UPSC IAS Civil Services</strong> MCQ questions covering Indian History, Polity, Geography, Economy, Environment, Science & Technology, and Current Affairs. Aligned with the latest UPSC Prelims syllabus — perfect for IAS, IPS, IFS, and other Civil Services aspirants.
319 questions | 100% Free
The 'United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea' (UNCLOS) defines the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of a coastal state. What is the outer limit of the EEZ from the baseline?
Understanding:
We need to identify the outer limit of the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) as defined by UNCLOS.
Step 1: UNCLOS maritime zones
UNCLOS (adopted 1982, entered into force 1994) defines several maritime zones measured from the baseline (generally the low-water line along the coast):
Step 2: The EEZ limit
Article 55–75 of UNCLOS establishes the EEZ. Within the EEZ, the coastal state has sovereign rights for the purpose of exploring and exploiting, conserving and managing the natural resources (living and non-living) of the waters, seabed, and subsoil, as well as rights with regard to other economic activities.
Step 3: Distinguishing the options
12 NM = Territorial Sea limit. 24 NM = Contiguous Zone limit. 200 NM = EEZ limit (correct). 350 NM = maximum outer limit of the Extended Continental Shelf (not EEZ).
Answer:
The outer limit of the EEZ under UNCLOS is 200 nautical miles from the baseline.
Quick Tip:
A useful mnemonic: 12 (Territorial Sea) → 24 (Contiguous) → 200 (EEZ) → 350 (Extended Continental Shelf). India's EEZ of approximately 2.37 million sq km is one of the largest in the world.
The 'Belt and Road Initiative' (BRI), also known as 'One Belt One Road' (OBOR), was launched by China. India has consistently refused to participate in BRI primarily because of which of the following reasons?
Understanding:
We need to identify the primary reason India refuses to participate in China's Belt and Road Initiative (BRI).
Step 1: India's objections to BRI
India has consistently stayed away from BRI forums and has been the most prominent country to officially and repeatedly articulate objections to the initiative.
Step 2: The CPEC issue
The most fundamental and officially stated reason is the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC). CPEC is a flagship BRI project worth approximately $62 billion that runs through Gilgit-Baltistan, which is part of Pakistan-Occupied Kashmir (PoK). India considers this territory as an integral part of Jammu & Kashmir, and construction of infrastructure there by China without India's consent violates India's sovereignty and territorial integrity.
Step 3: India's official position
India's Ministry of External Affairs has repeatedly stated that no country can accept a project that ignores its core concerns over sovereignty and territorial integrity. India also raises concerns about BRI's debt sustainability, lack of transparency, and environmental standards.
Step 4: Eliminating incorrect options
India IS a founding member and significant shareholder of AIIB. BRI does not mandate Renminbi-only transactions. BRI has proposed projects within India — India's refusal is about sovereignty, not exclusion.
Answer:
India refuses to participate in BRI primarily because CPEC passes through Pakistan-Occupied Kashmir, violating India's sovereignty.
Quick Tip:
India is the only major country to formally boycott BRI forums. It has also proposed its own connectivity alternatives — the International North-South Transport Corridor (INSTC) and supported the G7's Partnership for Global Infrastructure and Investment (PGII) as alternatives to BRI.
The 'Financial Action Task Force' (FATF) places countries on its 'grey list' (Increased Monitoring list) for which of the following reasons?
Understanding:
We need to identify why FATF places countries on its 'grey list.'
Step 1: About FATF
The Financial Action Task Force (FATF) is an intergovernmental body established in 1989 by the G7 Paris Summit. It sets international standards for combating money laundering, terrorist financing, and proliferation financing. It has 40 recommendations as global standards.
Step 2: FATF's three lists
FATF maintains three monitoring categories:
1. Regular member jurisdictions (compliant)
2. Increased Monitoring list (Grey List): Jurisdictions with strategic deficiencies in their AML/CFT regimes that are committed to and actively working with FATF to address those deficiencies within agreed timeframes.
3. High-Risk Jurisdictions (Black List): Countries with serious deficiencies that pose risks to the international financial system and are not sufficiently addressing them.
Step 3: Grey List specifically
Being grey-listed means the country has identified weaknesses in its AML/CFT framework but is actively cooperating with FATF to fix them. This differs from being blacklisted, where the country is either non-cooperative or has failed to address deficiencies. Pakistan was on the grey list from 2018 to 2022.
Step 4: Consequences of grey listing
Grey-listed countries face increased scrutiny from financial institutions, which can raise borrowing costs and reduce foreign investment and aid flows.
Answer:
FATF grey-lists countries that have strategic deficiencies in anti-money laundering and counter-terrorist financing regimes but are actively working to address them.
Quick Tip:
Pakistan's grey listing (2018–2022) significantly impacted its ability to access international financial markets and IMF programs, making FATF listings a potent tool of economic diplomacy.
The 'Indian Ocean Rim Association' (IORA) is a regional organization focused on the Indian Ocean. Which of the following correctly describes IORA?
Understanding:
We need to correctly describe the Indian Ocean Rim Association (IORA).
Step 1: Background of IORA
IORA was established in 1997 (originally as Indian Ocean Rim Association for Regional Cooperation, IOR-ARC) and is headquartered in Ebene, Mauritius. It has 23 Member States and 10 Dialogue Partners.
Step 2: IORA's focus areas and structure
IORA is an intergovernmental organization that focuses on six priority areas:
1. Maritime Safety and Security
2. Trade and Investment Facilitation
3. Fisheries Management
4. Disaster Risk Management
5. Academic, Science and Technology
6. Tourism and Cultural Exchanges
A 7th priority of Blue Economy was added in 2017 following India's championing of the concept during its chairmanship.
Step 3: IORA's nature
IORA is explicitly NOT a military alliance. It follows a non-military, cooperative approach. It spans a vast geography — from East Africa to Southeast Asia — making it decidedly not South Asian only. It is also not exclusively environmental.
Step 4: India's role
India has been a founding and leading member. India held the IORA Chair from 2011 to 2013 and hosted the IORA Leaders' Summit in 2017 in Jakarta — the first ever leaders' summit of the grouping.
Answer:
IORA is an intergovernmental organization promoting trade, maritime safety, fisheries, disaster risk reduction, and cultural cooperation among Indian Ocean rim countries.
The 'Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations' (1961) is the foundational treaty governing diplomatic relations. Under this convention, the premises of a diplomatic mission are:
Understanding:
We need to identify the correct legal status of diplomatic mission premises under the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations (1961).
Step 1: Inviolability of mission premises
Article 22 of the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations (1961) establishes the inviolability of mission premises. It states:
Step 2: Clearing the 'extraterritoriality' myth
A common misconception (option A) is that embassy premises are the territory of the sending state. This is legally incorrect. The premises remain the territory of the host (receiving) state. The concept of extraterritoriality is a popular but technically inaccurate description. The correct legal status is 'inviolability,' not sovereignty.
Step 3: No exceptions for emergency or crime
The inviolability under the Vienna Convention is absolute in its terms — there is no exception for national emergencies or suspected criminal activity. Even if the mission is accused of harboring criminals, the host state must use diplomatic channels, not forcible entry. (The Julian Assange case at Ecuador's London embassy illustrates this principle in practice.)
Answer:
Under the Vienna Convention, diplomatic mission premises are inviolable — host state agents cannot enter without the head of mission's consent, and the host state must actively protect them.
Quick Tip:
Distinguish: Inviolability (legal concept under Vienna Convention) ≠ Extraterritoriality (popular but legally inaccurate concept). UPSC has tested this distinction. Also, Article 22 = Mission premises; Article 29 = Diplomat's person; both are inviolable but different provisions.
The 'Non-Aligned Movement' (NAM) was established at the Belgrade Conference in 1961. Which of the following leaders was NOT among the principal founders of NAM?
Understanding:
We need to identify which leader was NOT among the principal founders of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM).
Step 1: Background of NAM
NAM was formally established at the First Non-Aligned Conference in Belgrade, Yugoslavia, in September 1961. It emerged from the desire of newly independent nations in Asia, Africa, and Latin America to remain free from alignment with either the Western (NATO) or Eastern (Warsaw Pact) blocs during the Cold War.
Step 2: The five founding fathers of NAM
The five leaders most closely associated with the founding of NAM are:
1. Jawaharlal Nehru (India)
2. Josip Broz Tito (Yugoslavia)
3. Gamal Abdel Nasser (Egypt)
4. Kwame Nkrumah (Ghana)
5. Sukarno (Indonesia)
These five are known as the 'Quintet' of NAM founding fathers. The Bandung Conference (1955) in Indonesia preceded NAM and brought many of these leaders together.
Step 3: Mao Zedong's position
Mao Zedong was the leader of the People's Republic of China. China was NOT a founding member of NAM. During the 1961 Belgrade conference, China was aligned with the Soviet Union (Sino-Soviet split occurred around 1960–1961) and was not part of the non-aligned framework. China later became an observer at NAM conferences.
Answer:
Mao Zedong of China was not among the principal founders of NAM; the founding quintet comprised Nehru, Tito, Nasser, Nkrumah, and Sukarno.
Quick Tip:
Remember the founding quintet with the mnemonic: 'Nations Truly Nationalize Spectacular Struggles' → Nehru, Tito, Nasser, Nkrumah, Sukarno. China's absence from NAM's founding is a frequently tested distinction.
Which Mughal emperor built the Buland Darwaza at Fatehpur Sikri, and what was the occasion for its construction?
Understanding:
We need to identify the Mughal emperor who built the Buland Darwaza and the specific occasion that prompted its construction.
Step 1: Historical Context
The Buland Darwaza, meaning 'Gate of Magnificence', is located at Fatehpur Sikri near Agra. It was constructed by Emperor Akbar in 1601 CE.
Step 2: The Occasion
Akbar built this grand gateway to commemorate his victorious Gujarat campaign of 1572–73 CE. The Buland Darwaza stands about 54 metres high and is considered one of the largest gateways in the world, symbolising Akbar's imperial power and his triumph in the Deccan/Gujarat region.
Step 3: Eliminating Other Options
Humayun did return from Persia but did not build this monument. Jahangir and Shah Jahan had no role in constructing Fatehpur Sikri's Buland Darwaza.
Answer:
The Buland Darwaza was built by Akbar to commemorate his victory over Gujarat.
The 'Doctrine of Lapse' is associated with British India, but which medieval Indian administrative practice allowed a ruler to annexe a subordinate state that lacked a natural heir?
Understanding:
We need to identify the medieval Indian (specifically Mughal) administrative practice that allowed the emperor to take over a subordinate territory when a natural heir was absent.
Step 1: Mughal Land and Succession Policy
Under the Mughal system, all land ultimately belonged to the emperor. When a mansabdar or subordinate chief died without a recognised heir, his jagir (land assignment) reverted to the imperial crown through a practice akin to escheat. The emperor had full authority to reassign or absorb such territories.
Step 2: Distinguishing Other Options
The Taluqdari system refers to revenue collection arrangements, not succession. Watan Jagirs were hereditary grants given mainly to Rajput chiefs and could be inherited. Khalisa land was crown land kept under direct imperial revenue administration. None of these specifically address heirless succession annexation.
Step 3: Conclusion
The concept closest to the later British 'Doctrine of Lapse' within the Mughal framework was the emperor's power of escheat — absorbing territories of deceased mansabdars or nobles who left no legitimate heir recognised by the court.
Answer:
Under Mughal imperial authority, escheat allowed the emperor to absorb a territory when a subordinate died without a natural heir.
Which Rajput ruler of Mewar is credited with constructing the Vijay Stambha (Tower of Victory) at Chittorgarh, and against which ruler was this victory achieved?
Understanding:
We need to identify the Rajput ruler who built the Vijay Stambha and the enemy he defeated to occasion its construction.
Step 1: The Vijay Stambha
The Vijay Stambha (Tower of Victory) is a 37-metre tall tower located within the Chittorgarh Fort in Rajasthan. It was commissioned by Rana Kumbha (Maharana Kumbhakarna) of Mewar around 1448 CE.
Step 2: The Occasion
Rana Kumbha erected this tower to celebrate his victory over the combined forces of Mahmud Khilji of Malwa and Qutb-ud-Din of Gujarat in the Battle of Sarangpur (1437 CE). The tower is adorned with sculptures and inscriptions that document this triumph.
Step 3: Eliminating Other Options
Rana Sanga fought Ibrahim Lodi at the First Battle of Panipat's precursor battles but did not build this tower. Rana Pratap is associated with the Battle of Haldighati. Rana Udai Singh is known for founding Udaipur.
Answer:
The Vijay Stambha was built by Rana Kumbha to commemorate his victory over Mahmud Khilji of Malwa.
The Bhakti saint Kabir was a disciple of which spiritual preceptor, and which unique feature distinguished his teachings?
Understanding:
We need to identify Kabir's guru and the key feature that set his teachings apart from other medieval religious movements.
Step 1: Kabir's Guru
Kabir (c. 1440–1518 CE) was a disciple of Ramananda, a Vaishnava saint based in Varanasi who is credited with broadening the Bhakti movement by accepting disciples regardless of caste.
Step 2: Kabir's Distinctive Teaching
Kabir's most distinctive feature was his rejection of both Hindu ritualism (idol worship, caste distinctions, Brahmanical ceremonies) and Islamic orthodoxy (formal namaz, fasting, pilgrimage). He preached the unity of God — called 'Ram' or 'Rahim' interchangeably — accessible through personal devotion alone. His dohas (couplets) criticised hypocrisy in both religions.
Step 3: Eliminating Other Options
Chaitanya was a later Bengali Vaishnava saint; Kabir was not his disciple. Shankaracharya lived in the 8th century CE, long before Kabir. Ramanuja also predates Kabir by several centuries.
Answer:
Kabir was a disciple of Ramananda and uniquely rejected both Hindu rituals and Islamic orthodoxy, advocating formless devotion to one God.
Which of the following correctly describes the administrative unit called 'Iqta' in medieval India?
Understanding:
We need to correctly define the Iqta system as it functioned under the Delhi Sultanate.
Step 1: Definition of Iqta
The Iqta system was introduced into India by the early Turkish sultans of the Delhi Sultanate, influenced by Abbasid and Ghaznavid administrative practices. An Iqta was an assignment of the revenue of a defined territory — not ownership of the land itself — given to a military officer (called an Iqtadar or Muqti) in lieu of a cash salary.
Step 2: Key Characteristics
The Iqtadar was expected to maintain a certain number of troops from the revenue collected. The assignment was generally non-hereditary and transferable at the sultan's will. Balban and later Alauddin Khalji attempted strict regulation of this system to prevent the Iqtadars from becoming too powerful.
Step 3: Eliminating Other Options
Revenue-free grants to Brahmins were called Brahmadeya or Agrahara. Direct land ownership to peasants was not a Mughal or Sultanate policy. Religious endowments were called Waqf, not Iqta.
Answer:
An Iqta was an assignment of territorial revenue given to a military officer in lieu of cash salary under the Delhi Sultanate.
The Second Battle of Tarain (1192 CE) is a landmark event in Indian history. Which of the following statements about it is correct?
Understanding:
We need to identify the most accurate statement about the outcome and significance of the Second Battle of Tarain.
Step 1: The Battle
In the First Battle of Tarain (1191 CE), Prithviraj Chahamana (Prithviraj III) defeated Muhammad of Ghor. In the Second Battle of Tarain (1192 CE), Muhammad of Ghor returned with a stronger, better-organised cavalry force and decisively defeated Prithviraj, who was subsequently captured and executed.
Step 2: Immediate and Long-term Consequences
After the battle, Muhammad of Ghor did not himself establish a permanent administration; he returned to his homeland. It was his deputy Qutb-ud-Din Aibak who consolidated Ghurid control over northern India, which eventually led to the founding of the Delhi Sultanate in 1206 CE. So the battle opened the way for the Sultanate rather than directly establishing it.
Step 3: Eliminating Other Options
Option A incorrectly says Muhammad directly established Sultanate rule over Delhi. Option C is factually wrong — Prithviraj lost in 1192. Option D — no such treaty occurred.
Answer:
Muhammad of Ghor's victory at the Second Battle of Tarain (1192 CE) opened the path for the eventual establishment of the Delhi Sultanate.
Who among the following was known as 'Zinda Pir' (the Living Saint) in medieval India?
Understanding:
We need to identify which medieval Indian ruler was given the epithet 'Zinda Pir', meaning the Living Saint.
Step 1: The Epithet
Aurangzeb (r. 1658–1707 CE), the sixth Mughal emperor, was known for his austere personal life, strict adherence to Islamic law (Sharia), regular prayers, fasting, and refusal of music and entertainment at court. His devout lifestyle earned him the reverential title 'Zinda Pir' or 'the Living Saint' among his contemporaries.
Step 2: Distinguishing Other Emperors
Shah Jahan was celebrated as an architectural patron but not known for asceticism. Dara Shikoh was known for his syncretic and Sufi inclinations, not for Islamic orthodoxy. Akbar is famous for his policy of Sulh-i-Kul (universal peace) and Din-i-Ilahi, which was far from orthodox Islam.
Answer:
Aurangzeb was known as 'Zinda Pir' due to his exceptionally devout and austere personal conduct.
The Vijayanagara Empire reached its greatest territorial extent and cultural peak under which ruler, and which battle marked the beginning of its decline?
Understanding:
We need to identify the ruler under whom Vijayanagara reached its zenith and the battle that triggered its decline.
Step 1: Greatest Ruler of Vijayanagara
Krishnadeva Raya (r. 1509–1529 CE) of the Tuluva dynasty is widely regarded as the greatest ruler of the Vijayanagara Empire. Under him, the empire expanded to include most of the Deccan peninsula, and it witnessed unparalleled prosperity, literature, and architecture. He is also credited with defeating the Bijapur Sultanate at the Battle of Raichur (1520 CE).
Step 2: The Battle of Talikota
The Battle of Talikota (1565 CE), also known as the Battle of Bannihatti or Rakshasi-Tangadi, was fought between the combined Deccan Sultanates (Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Golconda, and Bidar) and the Vijayanagara forces under Rama Raya. Rama Raya was killed and the city of Vijayanagara was sacked, marking the irreversible decline of the empire.
Step 3: Clarifying Option D
Option D correctly names the alternate name of the battle (Bannihatti) but attributes it to Rama Raya rather than identifying Krishnadevaraya as the peak ruler. Option A correctly pairs Krishnadevaraya as the zenith ruler with Talikota as the turning-point battle.
Answer:
Krishnadeva Raya presided over Vijayanagara's peak, and the Battle of Talikota (1565 CE) marked the beginning of its decline.
Alauddin Khalji's market reforms introduced several controlled markets in Delhi. Which of the following was NOT one of the markets he established?
Understanding:
We need to identify which among the listed markets was NOT established by Alauddin Khalji as part of his price-control system.
Step 1: Alauddin Khalji's Market Reforms
Alauddin Khalji (r. 1296–1316 CE) introduced a sophisticated market-control system with fixed prices to maintain a large standing army at low cost. He established four main markets:
1. The grain market (Shahana-i-Mandi) for food grains
2. The cloth market (Sarai-i-Adl) for cloth, cattle, and horses
3. The general commodity market for animals including horses and cattle
4. The market for slaves, cattle, and animals of burden
Step 2: Identifying the Incorrect Option
The 'Bazaar-i-Silk' for spices and jewellery is not a historically recorded separate market in Alauddin's system. The term itself is not associated with his reforms. Spices were included in the general commodity market, not in a separately named silk or jewellery bazaar.
Step 3: Conclusion
The 'Bazaar-i-Silk' was not one of Alauddin Khalji's formally established controlled markets.
Answer:
The 'Bazaar-i-Silk' (spice and jewellery market) was not one of Alauddin Khalji's established controlled markets.
The medieval Sufi order known as the Chishti Silsila became deeply rooted in India. Which of the following pairs of Chishti saints and their associated khanqahs (hospices) is correctly matched?
Understanding:
We need to correctly match major Chishti saints with the cities where their principal khanqahs (hospices/dargahs) were located.
Step 1: Moinuddin Chishti
Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti (c. 1141–1236 CE) is the founder of the Chishti order in India. He settled in Ajmer (Rajasthan), and his dargah in Ajmer is one of the most important pilgrimage sites in South Asia.
Step 2: Nizamuddin Auliya
Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya (1238–1325 CE) was one of the most prominent Chishti saints and established his khanqah at Ghiyaspur near Delhi. His dargah in Delhi (Nizamuddin Dargah) remains an active pilgrimage centre.
Step 3: Eliminating Other Options
Option B reverses the locations of the two saints. Option C incorrectly pairs Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki (whose dargah is in Mehrauli, Delhi) with Ajmer, and Fariduddin Ganjshakar (Baba Farid, whose dargah is in Pakpattan, modern Pakistan) with Delhi. Option D is entirely incorrect.
Answer:
Moinuddin Chishti's khanqah was in Ajmer and Nizamuddin Auliya's khanqah was in Delhi — this is the correct pairing.
Which of the following administrative innovations is correctly attributed to Sher Shah Suri?
Understanding:
We need to correctly identify an administrative innovation introduced by Sher Shah Suri (r. 1540–1545 CE).
Step 1: Sher Shah Suri's Reforms
Sher Shah Suri, despite ruling for only five years, introduced several landmark reforms:
Step 2: Eliminating Other Options
The Mansabdari system was introduced by Akbar. Internal customs duty abolition is associated with Akbar who abolished abwabs (illegal cesses). The Diwan-i-Bandagan was created by Balban to control the Forty nobles (Chahalgani), not by Sher Shah.
Answer:
The Zabti system of land revenue measurement and standardisation of weights and measures is correctly attributed to Sher Shah Suri.
The term 'Sulh-i-Kul' is associated with Akbar's religious policy. What does it literally mean, and which scholar is credited with giving it a formal philosophical framework?
Understanding:
We need to find the literal meaning of 'Sulh-i-Kul' and the scholar who articulated it as a formal principle.
Step 1: Meaning of Sulh-i-Kul
'Sulh' means peace and 'Kul' means all/universal. So 'Sulh-i-Kul' literally translates as 'Universal Peace' or 'Peace with all'. It was the guiding principle of Akbar's religious and administrative policy, promoting tolerance and equal respect for all religions and sects.
Step 2: Abul Fazl's Role
Abul Fazl (1551–1602 CE), Akbar's chief court scholar and biographer, provided the formal philosophical and intellectual framework for Sulh-i-Kul in his celebrated works Akbarnama and Ain-i-Akbari. He articulated it as a policy of treating all subjects equally regardless of their faith.
Step 3: Eliminating Other Options
Birbal was a courtier celebrated for wit, not a political philosopher. Faizi was Abul Fazl's brother, a court poet. Badauni was a historian who was actually critical of Akbar's religious innovations.
Answer:
Sulh-i-Kul means 'Universal Peace', and Abul Fazl gave it its formal philosophical articulation.
Which of the following statements about the Maratha administrative system under Shivaji is correct?
Understanding:
We need to identify the correct statement about Shivaji's Ashtapradhan council.
Step 1: The Ashtapradhan
Shivaji (r. 1674–1680 CE) established the Ashtapradhan, a council of eight ministers to assist in administration. The eight ministers and their primary roles were:
1. Peshwa (Prime Minister) — general administration
2. Sar-i-Naubat or Senapati — military affairs
3. Amatya or Majumdar — finance and accounts
4. Waqia-Navis — intelligence and home affairs
5. Sachiv or Shuru-Navis — royal correspondence
6. Sumant or Dabir — foreign affairs
7. Nyayadhish — justice
8. Panditrao — religious affairs and charities
Step 2: Each minister had both civil and military duties. They were responsible to the king (Shivaji), not to each other, and there was no collective override mechanism.
Step 3: Eliminating Other Options
Option B is wrong — the model was indigenous, not copied from the Mughal Diwan system. Option C is incorrect — the Peshwa was the Prime Minister, while the Senapati commanded the army. Option D is wrong — there was no democratic override; all authority rested with Shivaji.
Answer:
Shivaji's Ashtapradhan was a council of eight ministers, each having both executive and military functions, all accountable to the king.
The Bhakti saint Mirabai is most closely associated with devotion to which deity, and she is credited with composing devotional songs primarily in which language?
Understanding:
We need to identify the deity Mirabai was devoted to and the language in which she composed her bhajans.
Step 1: Mirabai's Devotion
Mirabai (c. 1498–1546 CE) was a Rajput princess of Merta who became one of the most celebrated Bhakti saints of medieval India. Her entire spiritual life was centred on intense personal devotion to Lord Krishna, whom she considered her true husband. She is famous for having reportedly defied social norms and her Rajput family in her single-minded love for Krishna.
Step 2: Language of Composition
Mirabai composed her bhajans (devotional songs) primarily in Rajasthani dialects and Braj Bhasha (a dialect of Hindi associated with the Braj region, the homeland of Krishna). Her compositions are marked by lyrical simplicity and emotional intensity.
Step 3: Eliminating Other Options
She had no significant association with Shiva, Rama, or Vishnu in a personal devotional sense. She did not write in Sanskrit, Awadhi, or Tamil.
Answer:
Mirabai devoted herself to Krishna and composed her bhajans primarily in Rajasthani and Braj Bhasha.