Vishnugupta, also known as Kautilya or Chanakya, was the chief minister and strategist of Chandragupta Maurya (c. 321-297 BCE).

He is credited with helping Chandragupta establish and expand the Mauryan Empire.

Kautilya authored the Arthashastra, a treatise on statecraft and administration.

The Rigveda is the oldest Vedic text (c. 1500-1200 BCE) and consists of 1028 hymns dedicated to various Vedic deities like Indra, Agni, and Soma.

The Yajur Veda contains sacrificial formulas, Sama Veda contains musical chants, and Atharva Veda contains spells and incantations.

The Indus Valley Civilization (c. 3300-1300 BCE) was contemporary with Egyptian Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2181 BCE) and Mesopotamian civilizations.

Its script remains undeciphered, there is limited evidence of temples, and it was primarily urban and sedentary, not nomadic.

India follows the Westminster model of parliamentary democracy.

The President is the constitutional and nominal head of state (Executive head), while the Prime Minister is the actual head of government and chief executive.

The PM is responsible to Parliament and exercises executive authority on the advice of the Council of Ministers (Article 53, 74, 75).

Article 85(2) empowers the President to dissolve the Lok Sabha on the advice of the Prime Minister.

This power is exercised on the recommendation of the Council of Ministers, headed by the PM.

The President acts on advice and cannot exercise this power independently.

The 42nd Amendment Act (1976) added three significant words to the Preamble: 'Socialist' (before 'Democratic'), 'Secular' (after 'Sovereign'), and 'Integrity' (after 'Unity').

These additions were made during the Emergency period under PM Indira Gandhi and represented a major constitutional amendment.

Under Article 85(2), the President has the power to dissolve the Lok Sabha on the advice of the Prime Minister.

However, this is a constitutional power exercised on ministerial advice.

The President cannot dissolve the Lok Sabha without PM's recommendation, reflecting parliamentary sovereignty.

Article 32 grants the Supreme Court power to issue all five types of writs: Habeas Corpus (release from unlawful detention), Mandamus (to compel performance of duty), Prohibition (to prevent ultra vires action), Certiorari (to quash orders), and Quo Warranto (to question authority).

These are crucial remedies for enforcing Fundamental Rights.

The 73rd Amendment Act, 1992 (which inserted Article 243E) provides that every Panchayat shall continue for five years from the date of its constitution and shall stand dissolved after the expiry of this period.

Provisions are made for elections to the new Panchayat to be conducted before the dissolution of the old one.

Article 45 of the DPSP directs the State to provide free and compulsory education to all children until they attain 14 years of age.

This was later enforced through the Right to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009.

Article 46 deals with advancement of SCs/STs, Article 47 with health, and Article 48 with agriculture.