Entrance Exams
Govt. Exams
HSG is the gold standard for assessing tubal patency and detecting tubal blockage or damage. It uses radiographic contrast to visualize the fallopian tubes.
Normal seminal fluid with absent sperm indicates obstruction in the reproductive tract rather than failed production. This is obstructive azoospermia, often due to vasectomy, absence of vas deferens, or ejaculatory duct obstruction.
Male factor infertility accounts for 40% of cases. Semen analysis is non-invasive, cost-effective, and should be the first investigation when evaluating an infertile couple.
LH acts on Leydig cells in the testes to stimulate testosterone synthesis and secretion. Low LH indicates secondary hypogonadism.
Spermatids undergo spermiogenesis (morphological changes) to transform into mature spermatozoa. This is the final stage of spermatogenesis.
CMV is the most common congenital infection, affecting 0.5-1% of live births and causing microcephaly, hearing loss, and developmental delays if acquired in utero.
Oxytocin triggers the milk ejection reflex (letdown reflex), while prolactin stimulates milk production. Both hormones are essential for successful lactation.
PCOS is characterized by elevated LH levels relative to FSH (typically LH:FSH ratio >3:1), along with hyperandrogenism and insulin resistance.
Levonorgestrel prevents or delays ovulation when given within 72 hours of unprotected intercourse and may also alter cervical mucus to impede sperm transport.
An empty uterus with positive hCG indicates an ectopic pregnancy (implantation outside the uterus), which may present with vaginal bleeding, abdominal pain, and hemodynamic instability.