Bt crops contain the Cry gene from Bacillus thuringiensis, which produces a crystalline protein toxic to specific lepidopteran (butterfly and moth) larvae, providing pest resistance.

PCR works through repeated cycles of three temperatures: denaturation (95°C), annealing (50-65°C), and extension (72°C), with Taq polymerase extending primers exponentially.

DNA microarrays can detect antibiotic resistance genes rapidly by analyzing the genetic profile of bacteria, enabling faster identification compared to traditional culture methods.

Hybridomas combine the antibody-producing capability of B cells with the immortality of myeloma cancer cells, producing monoclonal antibodies of high specificity indefinitely.

Restriction endonucleases are enzymes that recognize and cut DNA at specific palindromic sequences, producing sticky or blunt ends essential for creating recombinant DNA.

Recombinant insulin is produced by introducing the human insulin gene into bacteria (usually E. coli), which then produce insulin as a recombinant protein on a large industrial scale.

Modified viral vectors with pathogenic genes removed can efficiently deliver therapeutic genes to target cells while being non-pathogenic and reducing immune rejection.

Embryonic stem cells (ESCs) are pluripotent, meaning they can self-renew indefinitely and differentiate into any type of cell in the body, making them valuable for regenerative medicine.

The Ti (Tumor-inducing) plasmid from Agrobacterium tumefaciens is the natural vector for plant genetic modification, carrying T-DNA that integrates into the plant genome.

The guide RNA (gRNA) is complementary to the target DNA sequence and directs the Cas9 endonuclease protein to the exact location where the cut should be made.