Stomatal conductance (gs) is the rate of gas diffusion through stomata, dependent on aperture width and inversely on distance (g = A/L).

PSII catalyzes photolysis of water at the oxygen-evolving complex, transferring electrons to plastoquinone in the thylakoid membrane.

Water photolysis occurs in the thylakoid lumen as part of Photosystem II, releasing O2, H+, and electrons that drive the electron transport chain.

For every 3 turns of Calvin cycle (fixing 3 CO2), 9 ATP and 6 NADPH are used. This gives a ratio of 3:2 (ATP:NADPH).

The Casparian strip contains suberin (waxy substance) and lignin, which prevents apoplastic (cell wall) movement of water and minerals, forcing symplastic transport.

The Z-scheme illustrates electron flow from PSII through the cytochrome b6f complex to PSI, showing how electrons are elevated twice to reach NADP+ reduction.

CAM plants have the lowest transpiration coefficient because they open stomata only at night, minimizing water loss while fixing CO2 efficiently.

While plant cells lack true centrosomes with centrioles, plasmodesmata serve similar intercellular communication functions. However, most plant cells lack a distinct MTOC (microtubule-organizing center).

The azimuthal quantum number (l) determines the shape of the orbital (s, p, d, f)

Resistance R = ρL/A. When length doubles, L becomes 2L and area becomes A/2 (volume constant). New R = ρ(2L)/(A/2) = 4ρL/A = 4R