Linear expansion: ΔL = α × L₀ × ΔT = 1.2 × 10⁻⁵ × 1 × 100 = 1.2 × 10⁻³ m = 1.2 mm.

Using lens formula: 1/f = 1/u + 1/v. Given f = 15 cm, v = 30 cm: 1/15 = 1/u + 1/30, so 1/u = 1/15 - 1/30 = 1/30, therefore u = 30 cm.

The Second Law of Thermodynamics states that for an isolated system, entropy always increases or remains constant, never decreases. This defines the direction of spontaneous processes and the arrow of time.

Each half has resistance R/2. When connected in parallel: 1/R_new = 1/(R/2) + 1/(R/2) = 4/R, so R_new = R/4.

Object at 2f (40 cm = 2 × 20 cm) forms image at 2f. Using mirror equation confirms v = 40 cm, m = -1 (real, inverted, same size as object).

Water has specific heat capacity of 4186 J/(kg·°C), which is significantly higher than iron (~450), copper (~385), and aluminum (~900). This property makes water excellent for heat absorption and temperature regulation.

Height = L × sin(60°) = 10 × (√3/2) = 5√3 m ≈ 8.66 m. The vertical component of the ladder's length is found using trigonometry.

Stars appear as point sources. Turbulent layers in the atmosphere refract starlight randomly, causing intensity variations (twinkling). Planets appear as extended sources, so refraction averaging effect minimizes visible twinkling.

After 30 years = 3 half-lives: N = N₀ × (1/2)³ = N₀/8. The sample reduces by half three times successively.

Maximum velocity in SHM: v_max = ωA = 2πfA = 2π × 2 × 5 = 20π cm/s ≈ 62.8 cm/s.