In hypertonic solutions, water moves out of the cell due to osmosis, causing protoplasm to shrink away from the cell wall - this is plasmolysis. This is a fundamental osmotic principle tested in SSC/Railway exams.

Root pressure is generated by active transport of mineral ions into the xylem sap, creating a concentration gradient that draws water in osmotically. This is distinct from transpiration pull and is a key concept in plant physiology.

Phytochrome exists in two interconvertible forms (Pr and Pfr) and absorbs maximally in red (~660 nm) and far-red (~730 nm) regions. It's crucial for seed germination and photoperiodism - important for UPSC agriculture-related questions.

In C4 plants, PEP carboxylase fixes CO2 into oxaloacetate (4-carbon compound), unlike C3 plants where RuBisCO produces 3-PGA. This adaptation reduces photorespiration and is efficient in hot climates.

Photomorphogenesis refers to light-dependent development processes including light-mediated seed germination. Phytochrome is the photoreceptor involved. This is distinct from photoperiodism (flowering response to day length).

The correct radial arrangement in dicot stems is Epidermis (outermost) → Cortex → Vascular bundles (Phloem outer, Xylem inner) → Pith (center). This NCERT-based concept is frequently asked in SSC exams.

Ethylene is the senescence hormone that promotes leaf yellowing, abscission, and fruit ripening. Cytokinins antagonize ethylene effects. This hormone physiology is important for understanding plant development.

The reduction phase of Calvin cycle requires 3 ATP per CO2 fixed. NADPH requirement is 2 molecules per CO2. These are stoichiometric ratios essential for understanding photosynthetic efficiency.

2,4-D is a synthetic auxin widely used as a selective herbicide. Natural auxin is IAA (Indole-3-acetic acid). This is application-based knowledge relevant for agricultural science in UPSC.

The Casparian strip is a band of suberin (waterproof lipid polymer) that prevents passive transport across the endodermis, forcing minerals to undergo active transport. This ensures selective ion uptake - a key NCERT concept.