For AgCl ⇌ Ag⁺ + Cl⁻, Ksp = [Ag⁺][Cl⁻] = s × s = s². Therefore, s = √(1.8 × 10⁻¹⁰) = 1.34 × 10⁻⁵ M
Both larger atomic radius and greater shielding effect in sodium make the valence electron easier to remove compared to hydrogen's single electron.
Osmotic pressure: π = CRT where C is molar concentration. It's a colligative property dependent on number of solute particles.
Entropy is an extensive property (depends on amount of substance). Refractive index, surface tension, and density are intensive properties.
At constant temperature and pressure, ΔG < 0 is the criterion for spontaneity, where ΔG = ΔH - TΔS.
Boiling point elevation depends only on the number of solute particles (molality), not on their chemical nature.
Vapour pressure depends on temperature (increases with temperature) and the nature of intermolecular forces in the liquid, not on surface area or volume.
MgO has the highest lattice energy due to smaller ionic radii of Mg²⁺ and O²⁻ ions, leading to stronger electrostatic attractions.