Article 12 defines 'State' to include Government and Parliament of India, State Governments, State Legislatures, and all other authorities and bodies established by law.

However, private individuals and private organizations are NOT included in the definition of 'State', so Fundamental Rights generally do not bind them (except in cases of state action doctrine application).

DPSP (Articles 36-51) are not enforceable through courts in the manner of Fundamental Rights, but they are declared to be fundamental in the governance of the country.

They serve as guiding principles for legislation and policy-making.

This distinction was established by the Supreme Court in cases like Minerva Mills v.

Union of India (1980).

Article 85(2) empowers the President to dissolve the Lok Sabha on the advice of the Prime Minister.

This power is exercised on the recommendation of the Council of Ministers, headed by the PM.

The President acts on advice and cannot exercise this power independently.

The 73rd Amendment Act (1992) defines the Gram Sabha as the body consisting of all registered voters of a village.

It is the foundation of grassroots democracy and serves as the primary forum for participatory governance at the village level.

Article 370 was effectively abrogated through the Constitution (Application to Jammu and Kashmir) Order issued by the President in August 2019, coupled with the Jammu and Kashmir Reorganisation Act, 2019.

This was not a formal constitutional amendment but was justified as invoking Article 370(1)(d) itself to abrogate Article 370.

Article 352 (National Emergency) requires that the proclamation be laid before Parliament, and must be approved within 30 days.

If Parliament approves, it can last for 6 months and can be renewed.

However, it does have a maximum duration constraint through parliamentary renewal requirements.

The 44th Amendment Act imposed several safeguards on emergency provisions.

Habeas Corpus (Article 32) is issued to bring an unlawfully detained person before the court.

Mandamus (Article 32) is to command performance of a duty.

Prohibition is to restrain an inferior court.

Certiorari is to quash an order.

The matching in option C is correct.

The 44th Amendment Act (1978) made significant changes: it required that any National Emergency proclamation be approved by Parliament within 30 days, and imposed a 6-month limit on its duration.

It also made the right to property (Article 31) a Constitutional Right rather than a Fundamental Right (changed from Article 19 to Article 300A).

India follows the Westminster model of parliamentary democracy.

The President is the constitutional and nominal head of state (Executive head), while the Prime Minister is the actual head of government and chief executive.

The PM is responsible to Parliament and exercises executive authority on the advice of the Council of Ministers (Article 53, 74, 75).

Both 73rd Amendment (1992) for Panchayats and 74th Amendment (1992) for Municipalities provide constitutional status to local bodies and mandate five-year fixed tenure.

Article 243E (Panchayats) and Article 243U (Municipalities) establish this framework.

While reservation provisions and three-tier structures exist, they have exceptions.

The fixed tenure provision is uniformly applicable to ensure institutional stability.