The Preamble mentions: Sovereign, Socialist, Secular, Democratic Republic, Justice, Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity. 'Federal' is not explicitly stated in the Preamble, though federalism is incorporated through Articles 1-7 and other constitutional provisions. 'Socialist' and 'Secular' were added by the 42nd Amendment in 1976.

Article 80 specifies that Rajya Sabha has a maximum strength of 250 members (238 elected + 12 nominated by President).

Lok Sabha has 545 members including 2 Anglo-Indians nominated by President (not 545 including nominated members separately).

Lok Sabha members serve 5-year terms, not 6.

Rajya Sabha members are elected by state legislatures, not directly elected by universal adult suffrage.

Article 356 (Emergency Provisions) allows the President to declare President's Rule (National Emergency at state level) when satisfied that the constitutional machinery has broken down and the state cannot be governed according to the Constitution.

This typically follows dismissal of the state government.

The President acts on the advice of the Council of Ministers but the constitutional ground is the failure of constitutional governance in the state.

The 73rd Amendment (1992) made Articles 243 et seq. mandatory for panchayats.

Key features include: three-tier system (village, block, district) for states with population above 20 lakh; five-year tenure; regular elections; and reservation provisions.

Women's reservation was set at 33% (not 50%).

The amendment makes these provisions constitutionally binding on all states.

Articles 12-35 establish justiciable Fundamental Rights (Part III), while Articles 36-51 provide non-justiciable DPSP (Part IV).

Landmark cases like Kesavananda Bharati (1973) established that courts can use DPSP for constitutional interpretation and as guidelines for judicial review.

The distinction is crucial: Rights are enforceable, DPSP are aspirational but legally significant for governance and judicial reasoning.

Article 19 (Right to Freedom) can be suspended during a National Emergency under Article 359.

However, Articles 20 (protection against conviction for offences) and 21 (right to life and personal liberty) cannot be suspended even during emergency.

This ensures protection against arbitrary arrest and punishment.

Articles 36-51 contain DPSP which are non-justiciable (cannot be enforced in courts).

However, they are fundamental in governance and obligate the state to apply them while making laws and policies.

The Minerva Mills case (1980) established that DPSP cannot override Fundamental Rights, but both must be harmoniously interpreted.

Article 123 allows the President to issue ordinances when Parliament is not in session.

These ordinances must be laid before Parliament when it reassembles.

An ordinance ceases to operate if not approved by both houses within 6 weeks from reassembly or earlier dissolution.

The 43rd Amendment limited ordinance-making power by restricting repeated re-promulgation.

Quo Warranto (Latin: 'by what authority') is a writ issued to inquire into the authority by which a person claims to hold a public office.

It is used to prevent illegal appointments and to remove persons not entitled to hold office.

For example, it was used in cases questioning the validity of ministerial appointments when constitutional procedures were not followed.

The 73rd Amendment (1992) created a three-tier Panchayati Raj system (village, block, district) with reservation of seats for SCs/STs, but Mukhya Mantris (State Chief Ministers) are NOT elected directly by people.

They are elected by the state legislature.

Panchayat Chairpersons/Pradhans are elected, and State Election Commissions were constituted to conduct Panchayat elections.