Govt. Exams
Entrance Exams
Lymph drains from tissue spaces into lymphatic capillaries, passes through lymph nodes for filtration and immune response, and returns to the bloodstream via the thoracic duct into the left subclavian vein.
In Type 2 diabetes, normal or elevated insulin fails to lower blood glucose due to peripheral tissue insulin resistance, often caused by impaired receptor signaling or GLUT4 translocation defects.
Band 3 protein (anion exchanger 1) facilitates the exchange of Cl- for HCO3- across the RBC membrane, allowing CO2 transport as bicarbonate in blood.
Secretin, released by duodenal S cells in response to chyme acidity, specifically stimulates pancreatic ductal cells to secrete bicarbonate, neutralizing stomach acid.
Parasympathetic acetylcholine activates M2 muscarinic receptors on pacemaker cells, increasing K+ efflux and decreasing Ca2+ influx, causing hyperpolarization and reduced heart rate.
During exercise, lactate production increases blood acidity. Hyperventilation increases CO2 elimination, shifting the CO2-bicarbonate equilibrium to maintain blood pH (7.35-7.45).
Intrinsic factor, produced by gastric parietal cells, is essential for vitamin B12 absorption in the terminal ileum. Its deficiency prevents B12 absorption, causing pernicious anemia.
The proximal convoluted tubule epithelial cells have numerous mitochondria and microvilli for active transport of glucose, amino acids, and ions.
Intrinsic factor is required for B12 absorption; its deficiency leads to pernicious anemia due to impaired vitamin B12 absorption.
The fight-or-flight response involves sympathetic activation releasing epinephrine and norepinephrine causing vasoconstriction and tachycardia.
