Biotechnology

Epigenetic editing modifies gene expression without altering the DNA sequence itself, making changes potentially reversible. Prime editing offers precise edits with fewer off-targets. Base editing directly converts one DNA base to another. Epigenetic approaches offer the most control and reversibility.

Bacterial expression requires prokaryotic regulatory elements such as bacterial promoters and Shine-Dalgarno sequences for proper transcription and translation. The human gene alone won't be recognized by bacterial machinery.

When foreign DNA integrates into the genome, it can disrupt endogenous genes or be influenced by local chromatin context (position effect), causing unintended phenotypic changes beyond the transgene's direct effect.

Plasmids typically have limited cloning capacity (usually 5-15 kb), making them unsuitable for large genes. BACs (Bacterial Artificial Chromosomes) or YACs (Yeast Artificial Chromosomes) are preferred for large inserts.

Bt Brinjal (approved for cultivation in 2023 in India) contains the Cry1Ac gene from Bacillus thuringiensis, providing resistance to the eggplant fruit and shoot borer (Leucinodes orbonalis).

Aquaporins regulate water transport while osmolyte biosynthetic genes help cells maintain turgor under water stress, both crucial for drought resistance in plants.

Germline (heritable) genetic modifications in humans raise significant ethical concerns about consent, unknown long-term effects, and societal implications, which is why many countries restrict human embryo editing.